Climate change impacts at global, regional and local scales on urban and rural areas; water and energy access; and agriculture and health sectors. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s conservative estimates for Africa include exposure to increased water stress, with direct impacts on productivity of rain-fed agriculture; sea-level rise affecting low-lying coastal areas, many of which are the locations of large and growing cities; and an increase in the amount of arid and semi-arid land on the continent.